Stoplight Parrotfish

Stoplight parrot fish

Habitat and Environment

Sparisoma viride, which is commonly known as the Stoplight Parrotfish, can be found along southern Florida, Bermuda, Bahamas, Carribean Sea, and within the Gulf of Mexico (Fish Background). Our sighting of this fish occurred in the Florida Keys at the following sites: (1) the mid-channel reefs Coffin Patch and Pillar Patch and (2) Looe Key which was a reef crest coral reef. These fish prefer coral reef habitats and can have longer lifespans at offshore reefs in comparison to inshore reefs (Additional Basic Background on Stoplight Parrotfish). Along coral reef habitats these fish are commonly found anywhere from 3-50 meters in down in the water column. Their common predators in these areas include snappers, jacks, moray eels, and other carnivorous fish.

Appearance and Physiology

Subterminal Female and Primary
 Male Characteristic Coloration
Picture taken at Looe Key in
Florida Keys

The Stoplight Parrotfish has a typical parrotfish appearance consisting of large heavy scales along it's body and cheeks, beak-like jaw, and oblong body. Their beak-like jaw is formed from the fusion of their front teeth and is continuously growing through their lifetime. In the back of their throat they possess pharyngeal teeth which consist of convex plates of interlocking sets of molariform teeth. They utilize their pharyngeal teeth to crush coral reef fragments that they break down. The common food source for this herbivorous fish are algae and corals. After digesting the coral they eat and extracting the nutritious polyp, the coral waste is excreted as fine white sand. Current max length of this parrotfish is around 55 cm.

Terminal Male (aka Supermale)
 Characteristic Coloration.Picture
 taken at Pillar Patch in Florida Keys

Distinguishing characteristics of this type of parrotfish pertain to its coloristic patterns. Two distinct dimorphic forms exist with one representing primary males and subterminal females and the other form representing terminal males. The subterminal female and primary male have the following coloristic features: (1) mottled reddish brown trunk with white scales mixed in, (2) bright red belly, (3) red dorsal, anal, and back half of the caudal fin, and (4) white pectoral and first half of the caudal fin. In comparison the terminal male, also known as the supermale, has the following coloristic features: (1) a bright green trunk, (2) diagonal orange bands on upper head, (3) yellow spot on their gill and at the base of caudal, and (4) an orangish red crescent on the back of their caudal fin (Additional Basic Background on Stoplight Parrotfish). This caudal coloration pattern of orangish red, green, and yellow are where the common name originated from as it gives it a stoplight appearance.

Reproduction

The Stop

light Parrotfish has very interesting reproductive strategies. These fish typical reach sexual maturation in their third year of life and are able to undergo sex reversals as part of their hermaphroditic life styles. The primary males, which are born male, do not undergo a sex change. Instead these males spawn in groups with one female (Warner 1988). The subterminal females are the ones able to undergo sex changes. These sex changes are thought to be due to low sex ratios and are known as protogynous hermaphroditism (Girlolamo 1999). The males that result from this sex change are referred to as either supermales or terminal males. The supermales are the dominant, more aggressive male compared to the primary male and are known to form harems in order to claim the most females (Mumby 2002). An advantage thought to arise due to this reproductive strategy is that female size does not particularly influence their ability to reproduce, so they stay females when they are younger and smaller. However, once these females reach a certain size and sex ratios are off, then they can shift into the male form. Their larger sizes later in their lifetime allow them to succeed in protecting their harem and territory and making them competitively dominant to the primary males (Warner 1982). Along with their ability to change sex if necessary, they can also reproduce year round, with more intense spawning occurring during the summer months.

Interesting Facts

Some interesting facts about this fish is that due to their diurnal nature, they are only active during the day and rest at night. To avoid predation they employ a couple tactics. Instead of hiding in crevices they sleep in relatively open spaces as a way to quickly escape any oncoming predators that may try to corner them. Although this may seem like it leaves them vulnerable they have an interesting strategy to counteract the vulnerability open spaces inherently possess. They are known to surround themselves in a mucous cocoon for extra protection when sleeping (Additional Basic Background on Stoplight Parrotfish).  It is thought to deter predators by masking their scent and visual appearance, along with having a bad taste for predators. Unfortunately, we did not observe these fish during the night to witness them cocooning, but I would love to be able to observe them in this form of protection.

Another interesting fact about them pertains to how they swim. Unlike other fish species, Stoplight Parrotfish do not utilize their caudal fin as a primary source of propulsion. Instead, they only utilize their caudal fin for quick bursts of speed as a way to escape from predators. For primary propulsion the Stoplight Parrotfish instead utilizes their pectoral fins (Additional Basic Background on Stoplight Parrotfish).

References and Links

Basic background website links

·         Fish Background

·         Additional Basic Background on Stoplight Parrotfish

·         IUCN Listing

Article Refrences

·         Girlolamo, M. Social organization and sexual pattern in the Mediterranean parrotfish Sparisoma cretense. Marine Biology (1999) vol. 135, no. 2, pp. 353-360

·         Mumby, P. and Wabnitz, C. 2002. Spatial patterns of aggression, territory size, and harem size in five sympatric Caribbean parrotfishes. Environmental Biology of Fishes. 63: 265-279.

·         Warner, R. Metamorphosis: Among tropical fish, when the going gets tough, the tough change sex. Science, Dec. 1982

Coffin's Patch by Amanda Prystupa and Michael Klugerman

On May 24th, we visited Coffin's Patch as our first snorkeling spot of the day. According to legend, it got its name after the sinking of a cargo ship that was carrying empty coffins. The major marking for this area is a six foot tall stake that slightly protrudes from the water. This stake is now home to a plethora of organisms. It is a shallow mid channel patch reef with an average depth of about ten feet. Besides Looe Key, Coffin's Patch had the most biodiversity that we had seen throughout the week. There was an abundance of reef fish and soft corals. There was also minimal algae cover compared to the other sites we had previously visited. This site had the most amount of structure on a reef compared to other sites we had explored so far. This leads to a high abundance of fish and invertebrates due to the increase amount of crevices and hiding places for these organisms to protect themselves from predators. Since we were about three miles offshore the seas were rough, so rough that most of our group unfortunately began to feel sea sick. This site had a high abundance of soft coral because soft coral thrive in areas with high water flow, whereas hard corals normally can't withstand the intensity of the current. 

The water was also less turbid than the other sites we had gone to previously, however this could be because it was too deep for us to stir up the water when we jumped off the boat. Since the water was clearer it was easy to see the beautiful coral down below. This area had minimal algae cover due to the higher diversity of grazing reef fish. These fish eat the algae that begin to grow on the coral. This phenomena is very important for the coral because algae grow much faster than coral and if left uncontrolled the algae with over grow and begin to outcompete the coral for light and space.

     

Species of Organisms Found at Coffin’s Patch
Scientific Name	Common Name
Sparisoma viride	Stoplight Parrotfish
Scarus guacamaia	Rainbow Parrotfish
Lactophrys triqueter	Smooth Trunkfish
Chrysiptera parasema	Yellowtail Damselfish
Ocyurus chrysurus	Yellowtail Snapper
Sphyraena barracuda	Great Barracuda
Mycteroperca bonaci	Black Grouper
Lutjanus apodous	Schoolmaster Snapper
Lutjanus griseus	Mangrove Snapper
Ginglymostoma cirratum	Nurse Shark
Stegastes partitus	Bicolored Damselfish
Acanthostracion quadricornis	Scrawled Cowfish
Holacanthus ciliaris	Queen Angelfish
Pomacanthus arcuatus	Grey Angelfish
Chaetodon capistratus	Foureyed Butterflyfish
Paracanthurus hepatus	Blue Tang
Haemulon carbonarium	Caesar Grunt
Haemulon sciurus	Blue Striped Grunt
Eretmochelys imbricata	Hawksbill Sea Turtle
Millepora alcicornis	Branching Fire Coral
Porites asteroides
Acropora cervicornis
Siderastrea siderea
Colpophillia natans
Diploria clivosa
Diploria labyrinthiformis
Dichocoenia stokesi
Meindrina meindrites

http://www.divespots.com/scuba-diving-spots/florida/florida-keys/marathon/spots/coffins-patch
http://floridakeys.noaa.gov/zones/spas/coffins.html

Spotted Eagle Ray

By Emily Williams

     The spotted Eagle Ray, Aetobatus narinari, is found in a wide range of locations across the Indo-Pacific, east, and West Atlantic oceans in warm tempered waters. Some evidence suggests that there are at least four probable species of spotted eagle rays but it is still recognized as a single species until further research is done. The spotted eagle ray has been recorded in areas close to shore as well as in the open ocean and can range from swimming at the surface to as far as sixty meters in depth. They are most often observed near shore, around islands and by reefs, but are also believed to be capable of crossing ocean basins.

Female Aetobatus narinari sighted at Looe Key

     Spotted eagles often enter coral reef /environments to feed on benthic organisms including polychaetes, bivalve and gastropod mollusks, cephalopods, crustaceans, and teleost fishes. Fish are an important part of the diet of adult spotted eagle rays. Instead of having teeth, spotted eagle Rays have hardened dental plates that are used for grinding mollusk shells. When feeding, spotted eagle rays submerge their head into the sand to feed and leave behind large holes as they move along the bottom of the ocean floor.

     Spotted eagle rays reach maturity between ages 4 and 6, and are capable of giving birth at that time. The reproduction of A. narinari has not been widely researched but it is known that they can carry one or two pups at a time and gestation is a period of 12 months but may not be annual. This means that reproduction output is limited. A. narinari gives birth to live young which are born with a disc width ranging from 17 to 36 centimeters.

     The spotted eagle ray can reach up to 3.3 meters in disc length but most that are recorded are under 2 meters. They can be black, dark brown, or grey, covered with white spots on its back and a white underside. Their spots are always uniquely placed and can be used as a natural tag for biologists researching them.

     The IUCN identifies the spotted eagle ray as a “threatened species”. The primary threat to spotted eagle rays include fishing pressures, especially in coastal areas. The spotted eagle ray is also a popular candidate for aquariums and is often collected as a part of this aquarium trade. Research is continually being done in order to learn more about this species (or variety of species), and to resolve the taxonomic issue regarding the spotted eagle ray.

http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/39415/0

http://oceana.org/marine-life/sharks-rays/spotted-eagle-ray

Balloonfish

The balloonfish or Diodon holocanthus is a bony fish that can be described as a football with a tail ("Balloonfish (Spiny Porcupine Fish)"). This tail or caudal fin, is also rounded ("Balloonfish"). As for coloration, the balloonfish has a tan body with brown blotches and black spots over the entire length ("Balloonfish"). Additionally, the balloonfish has a brown band that runs over its forehead, from eye to eye ("Balloonfish"). The eyes of the balloonfish are large and pronounced with yellow irises and its protrusive lips are supported by large, fused, front teeth that form a beak-like structure ("Balloonfish (Spiny Porcupine Fish)"). The balloonfish has long spines that are found over the entire body and these fish range in length from 20-35 cm ("Balloonfish (Spiny Porcupine Fish)"). However, they can grow to 50 cm ("Balloonfish (Spiny Porcupine Fish)").

Image of a balloonfish showing his colorations and body shape (http://www.ryanphotographic.com/diodontidae.htm).

As for the geographical distribution of the balloonfish, it can be found in circumtropical areas ("Balloonfish, Diodon holcanthus"). That is, these fish are found in the Western Atlantic from Florida to the Bahamas and Brazil, in the Eastern Atlantic, and in South Africa ("Balloonfish, Diodon holcanthus"). These fish are also found in the Eastern Pacific from Hawaii to Pitcairn and the Easter Islands, and from southern California to Colombia and the Galapagos Islands ("Balloonfish, Diodon holcanthus"). Balloonfish are reef fish with a depth range of 2-100 m ("Balloonfish, Diodon holcanthus"). That being said, I observed the balloonfish on a patch reef called Coffin’s Patch.

            One very unique characteristic of the balloonfish is that it is able to inflate. When inflated, the spines that usually lie flat, will stick out straight. This helps ward off predators by making the balloonfish look larger as well as making the balloonfish difficult/painful to eat. The inflation is accomplished by the balloonfish swallowing air or water ("Diodon holoanthus: Blotched porcupine"). Once ingested, the air or water enters the expandable stomach ("Diodon holoanthus: Blotched porcupine"). In addition to the stomach, the skeletal structure of the balloonfish aids in the inflation process ("Diodon holoanthus: Blotched porcupine"). That is, the balloonfish lacks pleural ribs and a pelvic girdle ("Diodon holoanthus: Blotched porcupine"). It also has a very flexible vertebral column ("Diodon holoanthus: Blotched porcupine"). The skin of the balloonfish facilitates inflation as well. The skin is highly elastic because of microfolds in the epidermis and collagen fibers in the dermis ("Diodon holoanthus: Blotched porcupine"). This allows the balloonfish to extend up to 40% of its initial length ("Diodon holoanthus: Blotched porcupine").

Image of a balloonfish inflated with the spines sticking out (http://www.radiotimes.com/uploads/images/Original/28894.jpg).

            Diodon holocanthus reproduce via dioecism and external fertilization ("Balloonfish, Diodon holcanthus"). They spawn during one clear seasonal peak per year ("Balloonfish, Diodon holcanthus"). Spawning occurs in late spring and early summer after the males slowly push females to the surface ("Balloonfish, Diodon holcanthus"). The eggs are buoyant and hatch after approximately 4 days ("Balloonfish, Diodon holcanthus"). The larvae are well developed with a mouth, eyes, and a swim bladder ("Balloonfish, Diodon holcanthus"). They are mostly yellow with scattered red spots, and are covered with a thin shell until they are about 10 days old ("Balloonfish, Diodon holcanthus"). After the shell is lost, the spines begin to form ("Balloonfish, Diodon holcanthus"). About 3 weeks after hatching, the fins and fin rays are present and the teeth are formed ("Balloonfish, Diodon holcanthus"). As juveniles, balloonfish develop their olive to brown color with dark spots appearing on their ventral side ("Balloonfish, Diodon holcanthus"). These dark spots serve as camouflage for juveniles that float in Sargassum ("Balloonfish, Diodon holcanthus"). The spotting is maintained until the juveniles move inshore, settle, and become adults ("Balloonfish, Diodon holcanthus").

          Ecologically, balloonfish are nocturnal predators, usually hiding in crevices in the reef during the day ("Balloonfish, Diodon holcanthus"). The balloonfish use their beak-like structure to consume snails, sea urchins, and hermit crabs ("Balloonfish, Diodon holcanthus"). These fish are relatively poor swimmers and juveniles are consumed by pelagic predatory fishes such as tuna and marine mammals such as dolphins ("Balloonfish, Diodon holcanthus"). On the other hand, adults tend to fall prey to sharks ("Balloonfish, Diodon holcanthus").

            As for the conservation of the balloonfish, I was unable to find any current efforts. This is due to the balloonfish being of least concern according to the IUCN Red-List of Threatened Species. The species appear to be common and do not have any major threats ("Diodon holocanthus").

Looe Key-Kyle Kenney, Jakob Thayer, Morgan Medus

Looe key’s reef is consistent with a spur and groove formation. Ridges of corals are separated by large sand channels and consistently exposed to high wave energy which makes coral recruitment outside of already inhabited areas tough. This site had the highest biodiversity of corals and fish. It also had the largest amount of structure which provided a large number of niches space for different organisms. The fish on the reef were mostly mature, this suggested that either juveniles seek shelter elsewhere such as in the seagrass meadows or that the fish that reproduce on the reef are not very 

Stoplight Parrotfish at Looe Key

successful. This site was the first to have Acropora palmate (Elkhorn coral). We also saw transplants of Acropora cervicornis that were part of restoration efforts. Unlike other areas, we saw this reef is far enough away from land to be removed from inputs from land. The reduced visibility was due only to wave action causing continued suspended sediments. Looe Key differed from other sites we visited previously in the week. Conch Key was a mangrove island that while some coral was present diversity and population was limited. Coffins Patch and Pillar Patch had increased coral and fish biodiversity compared to the seagrass meadow sites that surrounded Conch Key and made up Old Dan and Old Sweat Banks. Their corals were larger and made more structure. At Looe Key, it was evident that the reef was older and had been building for longer then the patch reefs.

Species list

Fish:

·         Great Barracuda

·         Sergeant Major

French Angelfish at Looe Key

·         Stoplight Parrotfish

·         Black Grouper

·         Mutton Snapper

·         Yellowtail Snapper

·         Bermuda Chub

·         Bar Jack

·         Spanish Hogfish

·         Hogfish

·         Rainbow Parrotfish

·         Four Eyed Butterfly

·         Brown Chromis

·         Midnight Parrotfish

·         Caribbean Reef Shark

Acropora palmata at Looe Key

·         Rock Beauty

·         French Angelfish

·         Yellowtail Damselfish

·         Blue Tang

·         Bicolor Damselfish

·         Beagergory

·         Queen Parrotfish

·         Yellowhead Wrasse

·         Blue Parrotfish

·         Smallmouth Snapper

·         Scrawled Filefish

·         Caesar Grunt

·          Bluestripped Grunt

·         Spotfin Damselfish

·         Nassau Grouper

·         Spotted Eagle Ray

·         Squirrelfish

·         Atlantic Triggerfish

·         Ocean Surgeon

·         Mangrove Snapper

·         Atlantic Spadefish

·         Trumpetfish

·         Black Margate

·         Grey Angelfish

·         Dog Snapper

·         Rock Hind

Invertebrates:

·         Queen Conch

·         Christmas Tree Worm

Algae:

·         Halimeda

Coral:

·         Orbicella annularis

·         Sea Fans

·         Siderastrea sidera

·         Meandrina meandrites

·         Orbicella favelota

·         Montastrea cavernosa

·         Diploria labrinythiformis

·         Porites porites

·         Orbicella franksi

·         Bladed fire coral

·         Acropora palmata

·         Acropora cervicornis

·         Colpophyillia natans

·         Dichocoenia stokesi

·         Sea rod

·         Pseudodiploria strigosa

·         Agaricia